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how long is the odyssey

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Ballsy verse form attributed to Homer

Odyssey
past Homer
Odyssey-crop.jpg

15th-century manuscript of Volume I written by scribe John Rhosos (British Museum)
Written c.  8th century BCE
Language Homeric Greek
Genre(s) Ballsy poetry
Published in English 1614
Lines 12,109
Read online Odyssey at Wikisource
Metre Dactylic hexameter

The Odyssey (;[one] Ancient Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, romanized: Odýsseia , Attic Greek: [o.dýs.seː.a]) is one of two major aboriginal Greek ballsy poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature nonetheless widely read by modernistic audiences. As with the Iliad, the verse form is divided into 24 books. It follows the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journeying home after the Trojan State of war. Subsequently the war itself, which lasted ten years, his journey lasted for ten additional years, during which time he encountered many perils and all his coiffure mates were killed. In his absence, Odysseus was assumed dead, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus had to debate with a grouping of unruly suitors who were competing for Penelope's hand in marriage.

The Odyssey was originally composed in Homeric Greek in effectually the eighth or 7th century BCE and, by the mid-6th century BCE, had become role of the Greek literary canon. In antiquity, Homer's authorship of the poem was not questioned, but contemporary scholarship predominantly assumes that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently, and the stories themselves formed as office of a long oral tradition. Given widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by an aoidos or rhapsode, and more than probable to be heard than read.

Crucial themes in the poem include the ideas of nostos (νόστος; "render"), wandering, xenia (ξενία; "guest-friendship"), testing, and omens. Scholars notwithstanding reflect on the narrative significance of certain groups in the poem, such equally women and slaves, who accept a more than prominent role in the epic than in many other works of ancient literature. This focus is especially remarkable when considered beside the Iliad, which centres the exploits of soldiers and kings during the Trojan War.

The Odyssey is regarded as one of the well-nigh significant works of the Western canon. The first English translation of the Odyssey was in the 16th century. Adaptations and re-imaginings continue to be produced across a wide variety of mediums. In 2022, when BBC Culture polled experts around the earth to find literature's well-nigh indelible narrative, the Odyssey topped the list.[2]

Synopsis

Exposition (books 1-4)

The Odyssey begins later the end of the ten-year Trojan State of war (the subject of the Iliad), from which Odysseus, king of Ithaca, has nonetheless not returned due to angering Poseidon, the god of the ocean. Odysseus' son, Telemachus, is about 20 years old and is sharing his absent father's business firm on the isle of Ithaca with his mother Penelope and the suitors of Penelope, a crowd of 108 boisterous young men who each aim to persuade Penelope for her hand in marriage, all the while reveling in the rex's palace and eating upwards his wealth.

Odysseus' protectress, the goddess Athena, asks Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return dwelling house when Poseidon is absent from Mount Olympus. So, bearded as a chieftain named Mentes, Athena visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his begetter. He offers her hospitality and they observe the suitors dining rowdily while Phemius, the bard, performs a narrative poem for them.

That night, Athena, disguised every bit Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be washed with the insolent suitors, who then belittle at Telemachus. Accompanied by Athena (now disguised as Mentor), the son of Odysseus departs for the Greek mainland, to the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, who resided in Pylos after the war.

From there, Telemachus rides to Sparta, accompanied by Nestor's son. There he finds Menelaus and Helen, who are now reconciled. Both Helen and Menelaus too say that they returned to Sparta afterwards a long voyage by way of Egypt. There, on the island of Pharos, Menelaus encounters the old sea-god Proteus, who told him that Odysseus was a convict of the nymph Calypso. Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his render abode past his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. The story briefly shifts to the suitors, who have only just at present realized that Telemachus is gone. Angry, they formulate a plan to ambush his ship and kill him as he sails back abode. Penelope overhears their plot and worries for her son's safety.

Escape to the Phaeacians (books 5-8)

In the class of Odysseus' vii years as a captive of the goddess Calypso on an island (Ogygia), she has fallen deeply in dearest with him, even though he spurns her offers of immortality as her husband and still mourns for domicile. She is ordered to release him past the messenger god Hermes, who has been sent by Zeus in response to Athena's plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is given wearable, food, and drinkable by Calypso. When Poseidon learns that Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft simply, helped by a veil given by the sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swims ashore on Scherie, the island of the Phaeacians. Naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep.

The next morn, awakened by girls' laughter, he sees the young Nausicaä, who has gone to the seashore with her maids after Athena told her in a dream to exercise and so. He appeals for help. She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents, Arete and Alcinous. Alcinous promises to provide him a ship to return him home, without knowing who Odysseus is.

He remains for several days. Odysseus asks the blind vocalist Demodocus to tell the story of the Trojan Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role. Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then tells the story of his render from Troy.

Odysseus' account of his adventures (books 9-12)

Odysseus recounts his story to the Phaeacians. Subsequently a failed raid, Odysseus and his twelve ships were driven off course past storms. Odysseus visited the lotus-eaters who gave his men their fruit that caused them to forget their homecoming. Odysseus had to elevate them back to the ship by strength.

Subsequently, Odysseus and his men landed on a lush, uninhabited island virtually the land of the Cyclopes. The men then landed on shore and entered the cavern of Polyphemus, where they institute all the cheeses and meat they desired. Upon returning home, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with a massive boulder and proceeded to eat Odysseus' men. Odysseus devised an escape programme in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody," plied Polyphemus with wine and blinded him with a wooden stake. When Polyphemus cried out, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had attacked him. Odysseus and his men finally escaped the cavern by hiding on the underbellies of the sheep every bit they were permit out of the cavern.

As they escaped, nevertheless, Odysseus, taunting Polyphemus, revealed himself. The Cyclops prayed to his father Poseidon, asking him to curse Odysseus to wander for ten years. After the escape, Aeolus gave Odysseus a leather pocketbook containing all the winds, except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe render dwelling. Just every bit Ithaca came into sight, the sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking it contained aureate. The winds flew out and the storm drove the ships back the way they had come up. Aeolus, recognizing that Odysseus had drawn the ire of the gods, refused to farther help him.

After the cannibalistic Laestrygonians destroyed all of his ships except his own, Odysseus sailed on and reached the island of Aeaea, home of witch-goddess Circe. She turned one-half of his men into swine with drugged cheese and wine. Hermes warned Odysseus most Circe and gave Odysseus an herb chosen moly, making him resistant to Circe'southward magic. Odysseus forced Circe to modify his men back to their man form, and was seduced by her.

They remained with her for one year. Finally, guided by Circe'south instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbour at the western border of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead. Odysseus summoned the spirit of the prophet Tiresias and was told that he may return home if he is able to stay himself and his coiffure from eating the sacred livestock of Helios on the island of Thrinacia and that failure to exercise so would upshot in the loss of his send and his unabridged crew. For Odysseus' encounter with the dead, see Nekuia.

Returning to Aeaea, they buried Elpenor and were brash by Circe on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the land of the Sirens. All of the sailors had their ears plugged upwards with beeswax, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song. He told his sailors not to untie him as it would merely make him drown himself. They so passed betwixt the half dozen-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis. Scylla claimed vi of his men.

Next, they landed on the island of Thrinacia, with the crew overriding Odysseus's wishes to remain away from the isle. Zeus caused a storm which prevented them from leaving, causing them to deplete the food given to them by Circe. While Odysseus was away praying, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunted the sacred cattle of Helios. The Dominicus God insisted that Zeus punish the men for this sacrilege. They suffered a shipwreck and all but Odysseus drowned. Odysseus clung to a fig tree. Washed aground on Ogygia, he remained there equally Calypso's lover.

Render to Ithaca (books 13-20)

Having listened to his story, the Phaeacians agree to provide Odysseus with more treasure than he would have received from the spoils of Troy. They evangelize him at nighttime, while he is fast asleep, to a subconscious harbour on Ithaca.

Odysseus awakens and believes that he has been dropped on a distant land earlier Athena appears to him and reveals that he is indeed on Ithaca. She hides his treasure in a nearby cave and disguises him as an elderly beggar so he can encounter how things stand up in his household. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own slaves, swineherd Eumaeus, who treats him hospitably and speaks favorably of Odysseus. Later on dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself.

Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush ready by the Suitors. He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and meets Odysseus. Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), and they determine that the Suitors must be killed. Telemachus goes home outset. Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his own house, still pretending to be a beggar. He is ridiculed by the Suitors in his own abode, especially Antinous. Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by proverb he one time met Odysseus in Crete. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus'due south recent wanderings.

Odysseus'southward identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia, when she recognizes an onetime scar every bit she is washing his anxiety. Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope near the beggar'due south true identity, just Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her. Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy.

Slaying of the Suitors (books 21-24)

The next day, at Athena'due south prompting, Penelope maneuvers the Suitors into competing for her mitt with an archery contest using Odysseus' bow. The human being who can string the bow and shoot an arrow through a dozen axe heads would win. Odysseus takes part in the contest himself: he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shoot the arrow through the dozen axe heads, making him the winner. He then throws off his rags and kills Antinous with his side by side arrow. Odysseus kills the other Suitors, first using the rest of the arrows and then by swords and spears one time both sides armed themselves. Once the battle is won, Telemachus also hangs twelve of their household maids whom Eurycleia identifies every bit guilty of betraying Penelope or having sex activity with the Suitors. Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant but recognizes him when he mentions that he fabricated their bed from an olive tree still rooted to the ground.

Construction

The Odyssey is 12,109 lines equanimous in dactylic hexameter, likewise chosen Homeric hexameter.[3] [four] It opens in medias res, in the heart of the overall story, with prior events described through flashbacks and storytelling.[5] The 24 books stand for to the letters of the Greek alphabet; the division was likely made afterward the poem's composition by someone other than Homer, but is generally accepted.[half dozen]

In the Classical menstruum, some of the books (individually and in groups) were commonly given their ain titles:

  • Volume i–four: Telemachy —the story focuses on the perspective of Telemachus.[7]
  • Books 9–12: Apologoi—Odysseus recalls his adventures for his Phaeacian hosts.[viii]
  • Volume 22: Mnesterophonia ('slaughter of the suitors'; Mnesteres , 'suitors' + phónos , 'slaughter').[nine]

Book 22 concludes the Greek Epic Wheel, though fragments remain of the "alternative catastrophe" of sorts known as the Telegony. The Telegony aside, the last 548 lines of the Odyssey, corresponding to Book 24, are believed past many scholars to take been added by a slightly afterward poet.[10]

Geography

The events in the main sequence of the Odyssey (excluding Odysseus' embedded narrative of his wanderings) accept been said to take identify in the Peloponnese and in what are now called the Ionian Islands.[11] At that place are difficulties in the evidently elementary identification of Ithaca, the homeland of Odysseus, which may or may not be the aforementioned island that is now called Ithakē (modernistic Greek: Ιθάκη ).[12] The wanderings of Odysseus as told to the Phaeacians, and the location of the Phaeacians' ain island of Scheria, pose more than fundamental problems, if geography is to be applied: scholars, both ancient and modern, are divided every bit to whether any of the places visited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before his return to Ithaca) are existent.[xiii] Both antiquated and contemporary scholars have attempted to map Odysseus' journeying, merely now largely agree that the landscapes, especially of the Apologia (Books 9 to 11), include too many mythological aspects as features to be uncontroversially mappable.[xiv] Classicist Peter T. Struck created an interactive map which plots Odysseus' travels,[15] including his near homecoming which was thwarted by the purse of wind.[14]

Influences

Terracotta plaque of the Mesopotamian ogre Humbaba, believed to exist a possible inspiration for the effigy of Polyphemus

Scholars have seen strong influences from Almost Eastern mythology and literature in the Odyssey.[sixteen] Martin West notes substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey.[17] Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh are known for traveling to the ends of the globe, and on their journeys become to the state of the dead.[18] On his voyage to the underworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, who is located at the edges of the world and is associated through imagery with the sun.[nineteen] Similar Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the expressionless from a divine helper: the goddess Siduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth, whose home is too associated with the dominicus. Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house past passing through a tunnel underneath Mt. Mashu, the loftier mountain from which the dominicus comes into the heaven.[20] W argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh'southward journeys to the edges of the earth are the outcome of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon the Odyssey.[21]

In 1914, paleontologist Othenio Abel surmised the origins of the Cyclops to be the result of ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull.[22] The enormous nasal passage in the middle of the brow could have looked like the eye socket of a giant, to those who had never seen a living elephant.[22] Classical scholars, on the other mitt, take long known that the story of the Cyclops was originally a folk tale, which existed independently of the Odyssey and which became part of it at a later date. Similar stories are plant in cultures across Europe and the Middle East.[23] : 127–31 According to this caption, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant or ogre, much like Humbaba in the Epic of Gilgamesh.[23] : 127–31 Graham Anderson suggests that the addition well-nigh it having merely one eye was invented to explicate how the creature was and so easily blinded.[23] : 124–5

Themes and patterns

Homecoming

Homecoming (Aboriginal Greek: νόστος, nostos) is a key theme of the Odyssey. [24] Anna Bonafazi of the University of Cologne writes that, in Homer, nostos is "return habitation from Troy, by sea".[24]

Agatha Thornton examines nostos in the context of characters other than Odysseus, in guild to provide an alternative for what might happen later on the stop of the Odyssey.[25] For instance, 1 case is that of Agamemnon'south homecoming versus Odysseus'. Upon Agamemnon'southward return, his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus kill Agamemnon. Agamemnon'due south son, Orestes, out of vengeance for his father's death, kills Aegisthus. This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the expiry of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up as an example for Telemachus.[25] Also, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra'due south betrayal, Odysseus returns abode in disguise in club to test the loyalty of his ain wife, Penelope.[25] Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for non killing Odysseus. Information technology is considering of Penelope that Odysseus has fame and a successful homecoming. This successful homecoming is dissimilar Achilles, who has fame but is expressionless, and Agamemnon, who had an unsuccessful homecoming resulting in his death.[25]

Wandering

Merely two of Odysseus's adventures are described by the narrator. The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself. The two scenes described by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's isle and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians. These scenes are told by the poet to represent an important transition in Odysseus' journeying: being concealed to returning domicile.[26]

Calypso'due south name comes from the Greek word kalúptō ( καλύπτω ), meaning 'to comprehend' or 'muffle', which is apt, every bit this is exactly what she does with Odysseus.[27] Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the globe and unable to return home. After leaving Calypso'southward island, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"[28]—which represents his transition from not returning home to returning home.[26] Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are shut to the gods. These encounters are useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a earth beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot return domicile.[26] These beings that are shut to the gods include the Phaeacians who lived virtually the Cyclopes,[29] whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of the king of the giants, Eurymedon, and the grandson of Poseidon.[26] Some of the other characters that Odysseus encounters are the cyclops Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; and the cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians.[26]

Guest-friendship

Throughout the course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples of xenia ("guest-friendship"), which provide models of how hosts should and should not act.[thirty] [31] The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a prophylactic voyage dwelling, which are all things a good host should do. Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship. His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will eat him last.[31] Calypso also exemplifies poor invitee-friendship considering she does not allow Odysseus to leave her island.[31] Another important cistron to guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity. It is causeless that a rex has the means to exist a generous host and is more generous with his ain holding.[31] This is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, 1 of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request. Odysseus substantially says that while Antinous may look like a king, he is far from a king since he is not generous.[32]

According to J. B. Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows a very specific blueprint:[33]

  1. The arrival and the reception of the guest.
  2. Bathing or providing fresh wearing apparel to the invitee.
  3. Providing food and potable to the guest.
  4. Questions may be asked of the guest and entertainment should exist provided by the host.
  5. The guest should be given a place to sleep, and both the guest and host retire for the nighttime.
  6. The guest and host substitution gifts, the guest is granted a safe journey home, and the guest departs.

Another important cistron of guest-friendship is not keeping the guest longer than they wish and also promising their condom while they are a guest within the host's domicile.[xxx] [34]

Testing

Penelope questions Odysseus to prove his identity.

Another theme throughout the Odyssey is testing.[35] This occurs in two singled-out ways. Odysseus tests the loyalty of others and others test Odysseus' identity. An example of Odysseus testing the loyalties of others is when he returns dwelling house.[35] Instead of immediately revealing his identity, he arrives bearded as a beggar and and so proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors. After Odysseus reveals his true identity, the characters test Odysseus' identity to see if he really is who he says he is.[35] For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by maxim that she volition move the bed into the other room for him. This is a difficult task since it is made out of a living tree that would require being cut downwards, a fact that only the real Odysseus would know, thus proving his identity. For more information on the progression of testing blazon scenes, read more below.[35]

Testing besides has a very specific blazon scene that accompanies it. Throughout the epic, the testing of others follows a typical pattern. This pattern is:[35] [34]

  1. Odysseus is hesitant to question the loyalties of others.
  2. Odysseus tests the loyalties of others by questioning them.
  3. The characters reply to Odysseus' questions.
  4. Odysseus gain to reveal his identity.
  5. The characters test Odysseus' identity.
  6. In that location is a rise of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, normally lament or joy.
  7. Finally, the reconciled characters work together.

Omens

Omens occur oftentimes throughout the Odyssey. Inside the epic poem, they oft involve birds.[36] According to Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and in what way it manifests. For example, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors.[36] Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens likewise in the form of words, sneezes, and dreams.[36] However, Odysseus is the just character who receives thunder or lightning as an omen.[37] [38] She highlights this every bit crucial because lightning, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus.[36] Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both the Iliad and the Odyssey. [39]

Omens are another case of a blazon scene in the Odyssey. 2 important parts of an omen type scene are the recognition of the omen, followed by its interpretation.[36] In the Odyssey, all of the bird omens—with the exception of the first—show large birds attacking smaller birds.[36] [34] Accompanying each omen is a wish which can be either explicitly stated or but implied.[36] For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance[40] and for Odysseus to exist home,[41] Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return,[42] and the suitors wish for the death of Telemachus.[43]

Textual history

Composition

The date of the poem is a matter of some disagreement amidst classicists. In the eye of the 8th century BCE, the inhabitants of Greece began to prefer a modified version of the Phoenician alphabet to write downward their own language.[44] The Homeric poems may have been 1 of the earliest products of that literacy, and if then, would have been composed some fourth dimension in the late 8th century BCE.[45] Inscribed on a clay loving cup establish in Ischia, Italy, are the words "Nestor's cup, good to drink from."[46] Some scholars, such as Calvert Watkins, have tied this cup to a description of King Nestor'due south golden cup in the Iliad. [47] If the cup is an allusion to the Iliad, that poem's composition can be dated to at least 700–750 BCE.[44]

Dating is similarly complicated past the fact that the Homeric poems, or sections of them, were performed regularly by rhapsodes for several hundred years.[44] The Odyssey every bit it exists today is likely not significantly dissimilar.[45] Aside from minor differences, the Homeric poems gained a canonical place in the institutions of aboriginal Athens by the 6th century.[48] In 566 BCE, Peisistratos instituted a civic and religious festival chosen the Panathenaia, which featured performances of Homeric poems.[48] These are significant because a "correct" version of the poems had to be performed, indicating that a item version of the text had become canonised.[49]

Textual tradition

The Iliad and the Odyssey were widely copied and used as school texts in lands where the Greek language was spoken throughout antiquity.[50] [51] Scholars may have begun to write commentaries on the poems every bit early equally the fourth dimension of Aristotle in the 4th century BCE.[fifty] In the 3rd and second centuries BCE, scholars affiliated with the Library of Alexandria—particularly Zenodotus of Ephesus and Aristarchus of Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrote commentaries on them, and helped establish the canonical texts.[52]

The Iliad and the Odyssey remained widely studied and used as school texts in the Byzantine Empire during the Eye Ages.[l] [51] The Byzantine Greek scholar and archbishop Eustathios of Thessalonike (c. 1115–1195/6 AD) wrote exhaustive commentaries on both of the Homeric epics that became seen by later generations as authoritative;[l] [51] his commentary on the Odyssey alone spans nearly 2,000 oversized pages in a twentieth-century edition.[fifty] The commencement printed edition of the Odyssey, known as the editio princeps, was produced in 1488 by the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles, who had been born in Athens and had studied in Constantinople.[50] [51] His edition was printed in Milan by a Greek printer named Antonios Damilas.[51]

Since the late 19th century, many papyri containing fragments of the Odyssey have been found in Arab republic of egypt, some with content different from later medieval versions.[53] In 2022, the Greek Cultural Ministry building revealed the discovery of a clay tablet about the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, containing 13 verses from the Odyssey 'southward 14th book. While it was initially reported to date from the 3rd century AD, the engagement still needs to be confirmed.[54] [55]

English language translations

The poet George Chapman finished the showtime consummate English translation of the Odyssey in 1614, which was set in rhyming couplets of iambic pentameter.[50] Emily Wilson, a professor of classical studies at the Academy of Pennsylvania, noted that, as late as the first decade of the 21st century, nearly all of the nearly prominent translators of Greek and Roman literature had been men.[56] She called her experience of translating Homer ane of "intimate alienation."[57] Wilson writes that this has affected the pop conception of characters and events of the Odyssey, [58] inflecting the story with connotations not present in the original text: "For instance, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who take been sleeping with the suitors, nigh translations innovate derogatory language ("sluts" or "whores") [...] The original Greek does not label these slaves with derogatory linguistic communication."[58] In the original Greek, the word used is hai, the feminine article, equivalent to "those female people".[59]

Influence

The influence of the Homeric texts can be difficult to summarise considering of how profoundly they have impacted the popular imagination and cultural values.[60] The Odyssey and the Iliad formed the basis of education for members of ancient Mediterranean lodge. That curriculum was adopted by Western humanists,[61] meaning the text was so much a part of the cultural textile that it became irrelevant whether an individual had read it.[62] Every bit such, the influence of the Odyssey has reverberated through over a millennium of writing. The poem topped a poll of experts past BBC Civilization to observe literature's most enduring narrative.[ii] [63] Information technology is widely regarded by western literary critics as a timeless classic,[64] and remains ane of the oldest works of extant literature usually read past Western audiences.[65]

Literature

In Canto XXVI of the Inferno, Dante Alighieri meets Odysseus in the 8th circle of hell, where Odysseus himself appends a new ending to the Odyssey in which he never returns to Ithaca and instead continues his restless adventuring.[22] Edith Hall suggests that Dante'southward delineation of Odysseus became understood as a manifestation of Renaissance colonialism and othering, with the cyclops standing in for "accounts of monstrous races on the edge of the world", and his defeat as symbolising "the Roman domination of the western Mediterranean".[30]

Irish poet James Joyce's modernist novel Ulysses (1922) was significantly influenced past the Odyssey. Joyce had encountered the figure of Odysseus in Charles Lamb'due south Adventures of Ulysses, an adaptation of the epic verse form for children, which seems to have established the Latin name in Joyce's mind.[66] [67] Ulysses, a re-telling of the Odyssey set in Dublin, is divided into 18 sections ("episodes") which can be mapped roughly onto the 24 books of the Odyssey.[68] Joyce claimed familiarity with the original Homeric Greek, but this has been disputed past some scholars, who cite his poor grasp of the language as evidence to the contrary.[69] The book, and especially its stream of consciousness prose, is widely considered foundational to the modernist genre.[70]

Modernistic writers have revisited the Odyssey to highlight the poem's female characters. Canadian writer Margaret Atwood adapted parts of the Odyssey for her novella, The Penelopiad (2000). The novella focuses on Odysseus' wife, Penelope,[71] and the twelve female slaves hanged by Odysseus at the verse form'south ending, an image which haunted her.[72] Atwood's novella comments on the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Ithaca symbolises the restoration of a patriarchal arrangement.[72] Similarly, Madeline Miller's Circe (2018) revisits the relationship between Odysseus and Circe on Aeaea.[73] As a reader, Miller was frustrated by Circe'south lack of motivation in the original verse form, and sought to explicate her capriciousness.[74] The novel recontextualises the sorceress' transformations of sailors into pigs from an act of malice into 1 of self-defence, given that she has no superhuman forcefulness with which to repel attackers.[75]

Film and television adaptations

  • Ulysses (1954) is a film adaptation starring Kirk Douglas every bit Ulysses, Silvana Mangano as Penelope and Circe, and Anthony Quinn as Antinous.[76]
  • L'Odissea (1968) is an Italian-French-German language-Yugoslavian television receiver miniseries praised for its faithful rendering of the original epic.[77]
  • Ulysses 31 (1981) is a Japanese-French anime that updates the ancient setting into a 31st-century infinite opera.
  • Nostos: The Return (1989) is an Italian motion-picture show almost Odysseus' homecoming. Directed by Franco Piavoli, it relies on visual storytelling and has a strong focus on nature.[78]
  • Ulysses' Gaze (1995), directed by Theo Angelopoulos, has many of the elements of the Odyssey set against the backdrop of the most recent and previous Balkan Wars.[79]
  • The Odyssey (1997) is a television miniseries directed by Andrei Konchalovsky and starring Armand Assante as Odysseus and Greta Scacchi equally Penelope.[lxxx]
  • O Blood brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) is a offense comedy-drama picture written, produced, co-edited and directed by the Coen Brothers, and is very loosely based on Homer'southward poem.[81]

Opera and music

  • Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, offset performed in 1640, is an opera by Claudio Monteverdi based on the 2d half of Homer's Odyssey.[82]
  • Rolf Riehm composed an opera based on the myth, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens und des Vernichtens (Sirens – Images of Want and Devastation), which premiered at the Oper Frankfurt in 2022.[83]
  • Robert W. Smith'south second symphony for concert band, The Odyssey, tells four of the main highlights of the story in the piece's iv movements: "The Iliad", "The Winds of Poseidon", "The Isle of Calypso", and "Ithaca".[84]

See also

  • Aeneid
  • Gulliver's Travels
  • English language translations of Homer
  • List of literary cycles
  • Odyssean gods
  • Parallels between Virgil'due south Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey
  • Sinbad the Crewman
  • Sunpadh
  • The Voyage of Bran

References

Citations

  1. ^ "Odyssey". Random House Webster'southward Unabridged Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2022-02-29.
  2. ^ a b Haynes, Natalie. "The greatest tale ever told?". BBC.com/culture. Archived from the original on 2022-06-19.
  3. ^ Myrsiades, Kostas (2019). "ane. Telemachus' Journey (Od i-4)". Reading Homer's Odyssey. Rutgers University Press. ISBN9781684481361. [...] is a long oral narrative poem of 12,109 lines
  4. ^ Haslam, One thousand. Westward. (1976). "Homeric Words and Homeric Metre: 2 Doublets Examined (λείβω/εϊβω, γαΐα/αία)". Glotta. 54 (3/4): 203. ISSN 0017-1298. JSTOR 40266365.
  5. ^ Foley, John Miles (2007). ""Reading" Homer through Oral Tradition". College Literature. 34 (2): 1–28. ISSN 0093-3139. JSTOR 25115419.
  6. ^ Lattimore, Richmond (1951). The Iliad of Homer. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. fourteen.
  7. ^ Willcock, Malcolm L. (1976). A Companion to The Iliad: Based on the Translation by Richard Lattimore (2007 ed.). New York: Phoenix Books. p. 32. ISBN978-0226898551.
  8. ^ Most, Glenn W. (1989). "The Structure and Part of Odysseus' Apologoi". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 119: fifteen–30. doi:10.2307/284257. JSTOR 284257.
  9. ^ Cairns, Douglas (2014). Defining Greek Narrative. Edinburgh University Press. p. 231. ISBN9780748680108.
  10. ^ Carne-Ross, D. S. (1998). "The Poem of Odysseus." In The Odyssey, translated by R. Fitzgerald. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52574-3. p. ixi.
  11. ^ Strabo, Geographica, i.2.15, as cited in Finley, Moses. 1976. The World of Odysseus (revised ed.). p. 33.
  12. ^ Strabo, Geographica, i.2.15, cited in Finley, Moses. 1976. The World of Odysseus (revised ed.). p. 33.
  13. ^ Lane (2008) summarizes the literature in notes and bibliography. Fox, Robin Lane. 2008. "Finding Neverland." In Travelling Heroes in the Ballsy Age of Homer.
  14. ^ a b "The Geography of the Odyssey | Elizabeth Della Zazzera". Lapham'south Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2022-ten-08.
  15. ^ Struck, Peter T. "Map of Odysseus' Journey". www.classics.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on March 18, 2022.
  16. ^ W, Martin (1997). The East Face up of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. p. 403.
  17. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Verse and Myth. Oxford. 402–17.
  18. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face up of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. p. 405.
  19. ^ Due west, Martin (1997). The East Face up of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poesy and Myth. Oxford. p. 406.
  20. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: W Asiatic Elements in Greek Poesy and Myth. Oxford. 410.
  21. ^ West, Martin (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford. p. 417.
  22. ^ a b c Mayor, Adrienne (2000). The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times. Princeton University Press.
  23. ^ a b c Anderson, Graham (2000). Fairytale in the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 127–31. ISBN978-0-415-23702-iv.
  24. ^ a b Bonifazi, Anna (2009). "Inquiring into Nostos and Its Cognates". The American Periodical of Philology. 130 (4): 481–510. ISSN 0002-9475. JSTOR 20616206.
  25. ^ a b c d Thornton, Agathe (1970). "The Homecomings of the Achaeans." Pp. 1–xv in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen.
  26. ^ a b c d e Thornton, Agathe (1970). "The Wanderings of Odysseus." Pp. 16–37 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen.
  27. ^ "Calypso and Odysseus Archived 2022-05-02 at the Wayback Machine." Greek Myths & Greek Mythology (2010). Retrieved five May 2022.
  28. ^ Homer, Odyssey, 8.566. (Lattimore 1975)
  29. ^ Homer, Odyssey 6.4–5. (Lattimore 1975)
  30. ^ a b c Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger's Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: Academy of Michigan Press.
  31. ^ a b c d Thornton, Agathe (1970). "Invitee-Friendship." Pp. 38–46 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen.
  32. ^ Homer, Odyssey, 17.415-44. (Lattimore 1975)
  33. ^ Hainsworth, J. B. (December 1972). "The Odyssey – Agathe Thornton: People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Pp. xv+163. London: Methuen, 1970. Cloth, £two·40". The Classical Review. 22 (3): 320–321. doi:ten.1017/s0009840x00996720. ISSN 0009-840X.
  34. ^ a b c Edwards, Marker Westward. 1992. "Homer and the Oral Tradition." Oral Tradition seven(2):284–330.
  35. ^ a b c d east Thornton, Agathe (1970). "Testing." Pp. 47–51 in People and Themes in Homer'southward Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen.
  36. ^ a b c d east f thou Thornton, Agathe (1970). "Omens." Pp. 52–57 in People and Themes in Homer's Odyssey. Dunedin: University of Otago with London: Methuen.
  37. ^ Homer, Odyssey twenty.103-4. (Lattimore 1975)
  38. ^ Homer, Odyssey 21.414. (Lattimore 1975)
  39. ^ Kundmueller, Michelle (2013). "Post-obit Odysseus Home: an Exploration of the Politics of Honor and Family in the Iliad, Odyssey, and Plato's Commonwealth". American Political Science. Rochester, NY: 7. SSRN 2301247
  40. ^ Homer, Odyssey 2.143–five. (Lattimore 1975)
  41. ^ Homer, Odyssey xv.155–9. (Lattimore 1975)
  42. ^ Homer, Odyssey 19.136. (Lattimore 1975)
  43. ^ Homer, Odyssey 20.240–43. (Lattimore 1975)
  44. ^ a b c Wilson, Emily (2018). "Introduction: When Was The Odyssey Equanimous?". The Odyssey. New York: Westward. West. Norton & Company. p. 21. ISBN978-0393089059.
  45. ^ a b Wilson, Emily (2018). "Introduction: When Was The Odyssey Composed?". The Odyssey. New York: Due west. Westward. Norton & Visitor. p. 23. ISBN 978-0393089059.
  46. ^ "From carnage to a army camp beauty contest: the endless attraction of Troy". the Guardian. 2022-11-13. Archived from the original on 2022-01-09.
  47. ^ Watkins, Calvert (1976). "Observations on the "Nestor's Cup" Inscription". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 80: 25–40. doi:x.2307/311231. ISSN 0073-0688. JSTOR 311231.
  48. ^ a b Davison, J. A. (1955). "Peisistratus and Homer". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 86: 1–21. doi:x.2307/283605. ISSN 0065-9711. JSTOR 283605.
  49. ^ Wilson, Emily (2018). "Introduction: When Was The Odyssey Equanimous?". The Odyssey. New York: Westward. W. Norton & Company. p. 21. "In 566 BCE, Pisistratus, the tyrant of the city (which was not yet a commonwealth), instituted a civic and religious festival, the Panathenaia, which included a poetic competition, featuring performances of the Homeric poems. The institution is especially significant because we are told that the Homeric poems had to be performed "correctly," which implies the canonization of a particular written text of The Iliad and The Odyssey at this date."
  50. ^ a b c d eastward f g Lamberton, Robert (2010). "Homer". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard Academy Press. pp. 449–452. ISBN978-0-674-03572-0.
  51. ^ a b c d due east Browning, Robert (1992). "The Byzantines and Homer". In Lamberton, Robert; Keaney, John J. (eds.). Homer's Ancient Readers: The Hermeneutics of Greek Epic's Earliest Exegetes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Printing. pp. 134–148. ISBN978-0-6916-5627-4.
  52. ^ Haslam, Michael (2012). "Text and Transmission". The Homer Encyclopedia. doi:x.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1413. ISBN978-1405177689.
  53. ^ "Oldest Greek Fragment of Homer Discovered on Clay Tablet". Smithonian. 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-01-23.
  54. ^ Tagaris, Karolina (July 10, 2022). Heavens, Andrew (ed.). "'Oldest known excerpt' of Homer's Odyssey discovered in Greece". Reuters. Archived from the original on March 24, 2022.
  55. ^ "Homer Odyssey: Oldest extract discovered on clay tablet". BBC. July x, 2022. Archived from the original on September 1, 2022.
  56. ^ Wilson, Emily (2017-07-07). "Found in translation: how women are making the classics their ain". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2022-07-29.
  57. ^ Wilson, Emily (2017-07-07). "Plant in translation: how women are making the classics their own". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 2022-07-29.
  58. ^ a b Wilson, Emily (2018). The Odyssey. New York: West. W. Norton & Company. p. 86. ISBN978-0393356250. For case, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who take been sleeping with the suitors, near translations innovate derogatory language ("sluts" or "whores"), suggesting that these women are being punished for a genuinely objectionable pattern of beliefs, as if their sexual history actually justified their deaths. The original Greek does not label these slaves with any derogatory language. Many gimmicky translators render Helen's "canis familiaris-confront" equally if it were equivalent to "shameless Helen" (or "Helen the bitch"). I have kept the metaphor ("hounded"), and accept also made certain that my Helen, like that of the original, refrains from blaming herself for what men have washed in her name.
  59. ^ Wilson, Emily (December eight, 2022). "A Translator's Reckoning With the Women of The Odyssey". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 2022-08-06.
  60. ^ Kenner, Hugh (1971). The Pound Era. University of California Press. p. l.
  61. ^ Hall, Edith (2008). The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of Homer's Odyssey. New York: I. B. Tauris & Co. p. 25. ISBN978-1-84511-575-iii. The two Homeric epics formed the basis of the education of every- one in aboriginal Mediterranean gild from at least the seventh century BCE; that curriculum was in plough adopted by Western humanists.
  62. ^ Ruskin, John (1868). The Mystery of Life and its Arts. Cambridge University Press. All Greek gentlemen were educated under Homer. All Roman gentlemen, by Greek literature. All Italian, and French, and English gentlemen, past Roman literature, and by its principles.
  63. ^ Bahr, Arthur. "Foundation of Western Literature". MIT Open Courseware. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on six November 2022.
  64. ^ Cartwright, Mark. "Odyssey". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on iv July 2022.
  65. ^ North, Anna (2017-11-20). "Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here'southward what happened when a woman took the job". Vocalization. Archived from the original on 2022-06-27.
  66. ^ Gorman (1939), p. 45.
  67. ^ Jaurretche, Colleen (2005). Beckett, Joyce and the art of the negative. European Joyce studies. Vol. sixteen. Rodopi. p. 29. ISBN978-ninety-420-1617-0.
  68. ^ "Ulysses", The Oxford Companion to English language Literature (1995), edited Margaret Drabble. Oxford Upwardly, 1996, p. 1023
  69. ^ Ames, Keri Elizabeth (2005). "Joyce's Aesthetic of the Double Negative and His Encounters with Homer's "Odyssey"". European Joyce Studies. 16: fifteen–48. ISSN 0923-9855. JSTOR 44871207 – via JSTOR. First of all, Joyce did own and read Homer in the original Greek, simply his expertise was and so minimal that he cannot justly be said to take known Homer in the original. Whatever typical young classical scholar in the 2d year of studying Greek would already possess more kinesthesia with Homer than Joyce e'er managed to reach.
  70. ^ The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century, ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, pp. 108–109.
  71. ^ Beard, Mary (2005-x-28). "Review: Helen of Troy | Weight | The Penelopiad | Songs on Bronze". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2022-03-26.
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Bibliography

  • Lattimore, Richmond, trans. 1975. The Odyssey of Homer. New York: Harper & Row.

Farther reading

  • Austin, N. 1975. Archery at the Nighttime of the Moon: Poetic Problems in Homer'southward Odyssey. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Clayton, B. 2004. A Penelopean Poetics: Reweaving the Feminine in Homer'due south Odyssey. Lanham: Lexington Books.
  • — 2022. "Polyphemus and Odysseus in the Nursery: Mother's Milk in the Cyclopeia." Arethusa 44(iii):255–77.
  • Bakker, East. J. 2022. The Pregnant of Meat and the Structure of the Odyssey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Barnouw, J. 2004. Odysseus, Hero of Practical Intelligence. Deliberation and Signs in Homer's Odyssey. Lanham, Physician: University Press of America.
  • Dougherty, C. 2001. The Raft of Odysseus: The Ethnographic Imagination of Homer's Odyssey. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Fenik, B. 1974. Studies in the Odyssey. Hermes: Einzelschriften 30. Wiesbaden, West Frg: F. Steiner.
  • Griffin, J. 1987. Homer: The Odyssey. Landmarks in World Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Louden, B. 2022. Homer's Odyssey and the Almost Eastward. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • — 1999. The Odyssey: Structure, Narration and Meaning. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Minchin, Eastward. 2022. "The Expression of Sarcasm in the 'Odyssey'." Mnemosyne 63(4):533–56.
  • Müller, W. Yard. 2022. "From Homer's Odyssey to Joyce'due south Ulysses: Theory and Practise of an Ethical Narratology." Arcadia 50(ane):ix–36.
  • Perpinyà, Núria. 2008. Las criptas de la crítica. Veinte lecturas de la Odisea [The Crypts of Criticism: Twenty Interpretations of the 'Odyssey']. Madrid: Gredos. Lay summary via El Cultural (in Spanish).
  • Reece, Steve. 1993. The Stranger'southward Welcome: Oral Theory and the Aesthetics of the Homeric Hospitality Scene. Ann Arbor: Academy of Michigan Press.
  • — 2022. "Toward an Ethnopoetically Grounded Edition of Homer's Odyssey." Oral Tradition 26:299–326.
  • — 2022. "Penelope's Early Recognition' of Odysseus from a Neoanalytic and Oral Perspective." College Literature 38(2):101–17.
  • Saïd, Due south. 2022 [1998].. Homer and the Odyssey. New York: Oxford University Printing.
  • Turkeltaub, D. 2022. "Penelope's 'Stout Manus' and Odyssean Humour." The Periodical of Hellenic Studies 134:103–xix.
  • West, E. 2022. "Circe, Calypso, Hiḍimbā." Periodical of Indo-European Studies 42(ane):144–74.

External links

  • The Odyssey (in Aboriginal Greek) on Perseus Project
  • The Odyssey, translated by William Cullen Bryant at Standard Ebooks
  • The Odysseys of Homer, together with the shorter poems by Homer, trans. by George Chapman at Project Gutenberg
  • The Odyssey, trans. by Alexander Pope at Project Gutenberg
  • The Odyssey, trans. by William Cowper at Project Gutenberg
  • The Odyssey, trans. past Samuel H. Butcher and Andrew Lang at Projection Gutenberg
  • The Odyssey, trans. by Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg
  • The Odyssey, trans. by A. T. Murray (1919) on Perseus Project
  • The Odyssey public domain audiobook at LibriVox
  • BBC sound file — In our time BBC Radio 4 [give-and-take programme, 45 mins]
  • The Odyssey Comix — A detailed retelling and explanation of Homer'southward Odyssey in comic-strip format past Greek Myth Comix
  • The Odyssey — Annotated text and analyses aligned to Common Core Standards
  • "Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary" by Denton Jaques Snider on Projection Gutenberg

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey

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